Free Essays on The Transformation Of The Literary Vampire

Accounts of vampires return sooner than Abraham Stoker, before the presence of Vlad the Impaler, and even before the root of the Hungarian word â€Å"vampir† from which we get the current word â€Å"vampire†. Accounts of the undead go back to the hours of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, and were called â€Å"lamiae†. Since these occasions, numerous writers like Suzy McKee Charnas, Stephen King, Anthony Masters, Edgar Allan Poe, Anne Rice, Gabriel Ronay, and the most well known, Abraham Stoker, have every single composed book, plays, sonnets, and even motion pictures that incorporate vampires as characters. While the stories of the vampire appear to contain a similar basic material, the vampires themselves have experienced significant changes. In the first place, we met Dracula depicted to us as a tremendous animal given no voice, no conclusion, and no genuine part with the exception of being the beast. Notwithstanding, when we arrive at Interview with the Vampir e, the vampire has a voice and a section, yet he portrays the story. What's more, it isn't only any story, but instead an account of enthusiasm, torment, love, fierceness, forlornness, and dread, everything that recommends he has emotions, however conceivably a spirit also, whatever that may be. He is even a vampire we, the peruser, can really identify with. The vampire as we once realized it has changed to what we have now come to revere. As the years have advanced, the vampire has could take on a significantly more humanistic side. Instead of considering the to be as the beast he/she used to be, we presently take a gander at the vampire with a sort of longing. The transference of good and malevolence went from being so unmistakable, to obscured, to totally off imprint and curved. It is currently workable for the vampire to be the hero and those attempting to execute him/her the opponent. Set out to state that the vampire really became somebody we could know: the individual nearby or the splendid, broody, surprisingly wonderful, unconventional teacher; and the individual difficult... Free Essays on The Transformation Of The Literary Vampire Free Essays on The Transformation Of The Literary Vampire Accounts of vampires return sooner than Abraham Stoker, before the presence of Vlad the Impaler, and even before the birthplace of the Hungarian word â€Å"vampir† from which we get the current word â€Å"vampire†. Accounts of the undead go back to the hours of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, and were called â€Å"lamiae†. Since these occasions, numerous writers like Suzy McKee Charnas, Stephen King, Anthony Masters, Edgar Allan Poe, Anne Rice, Gabriel Ronay, and the most well known, Abraham Stoker, have every composed book, plays, sonnets, and even motion pictures that incorporate vampires as characters. While the stories of the vampire appear to contain a similar fundamental material, the vampires themselves have experienced significant changes. In the first place, we met Dracula depicted to us as a huge animal given no voice, no sentiment, and no genuine part with the exception of being the beast. Be that as it may, when we arrive at Interview with the Vampir e, the vampire has a voice and a section, yet he portrays the story. What's more, it isn't only any story, but instead an account of enthusiasm, torment, love, wrath, depression, and dread, everything that recommends he has sentiments, yet conceivably a spirit too, whatever that may be. He is even a vampire we, the peruser, can really identify with. The vampire as we once realized it has changed to what we have now come to revere. As the years have advanced, the vampire has could take on a considerably more humanistic side. Instead of considering the to be as the beast he/she used to be, we currently take a gander at the vampire with a kind of longing. The transference of good and fiendishness went from being so particular, to obscured, to totally off imprint and wound. It is currently feasible for the vampire to be the hero and those attempting to execute him/her the rival. Set out to state that the vampire really became somebody we could know: the individual nearby or the splendid , broody, strikingly wonderful, unconventional educator; and the individual difficult...

Design of a Sustainable House

Structure of a Sustainable House This report will actualize and assess how and what makes the structure of a house manageable and vitality proficient to suit the necessities of the Australian atmosphere. Environmental change is ostensibly the best test looked by society. Worldwide ozone harming substance outflows keep on rising every year because of the persistent use of petroleum products, regardless of endeavors to restrain them through alleviation and vitality productivity measures. To manage this test, significant objectives for lodging incorporate utilizing sustainable power source for example Sun oriented boards, Insulation is likewise the most commonsense and savvy approach to make a house more vitality productive, keeping it cooler in summer and hotter in winter and can make monetary investment funds in warming and cooling bills. Likewise, protection may diminish buildup in the home. This can give medical advantages by lessening mold and soggy. Sparing vitality in homes would likewise assist Australias with battling against an unnatural weather change by lessening a worldwide temperature alteration contamination from homes would be what might be compared to taking a huge number of vehicles off the street or closing down a few coals terminated force plants. The model of our home that will be actualized will be intended to oblige an Australian family. It will be vitality effective, roomy, cool, and warm to make it appropriate for the difference in occasional climate. It will likewise be intended to have detached sun oriented warming which is the most affordable approach to warm a home. The objective for this house is to ensure it has a potential future plan alternative for manufacturers and models to structure and execute a house that can suit the requirements for the Australian atmosphere that can be cool in the late spring and warm and agreeable in the winter. It should likewise have the option to decrease its dependence on coal power. On the off chance that we structure and develop our home with protection, it won't permit a conduction move of warmth then the general temperature of the room will be brought down. Our home will have vitality proficient highlights, for example, orientated windows, entryways and sun oriented boards. The Design Phase of our undertaking will display the structures, materials utilized, reason and focus on this task. The focus on this report is to display the structure and improvement period of building a maintainable house model that is functional for the Australian atmosphere. The Aim for this undertaking is to support the utilization of maintainability in the lodging and development industry by being vitality productive in plan and reasonableness. The proposed materials we will use for development are: Heated glue weapon Oar pop sticks Aluminum foil Soil Paper Hued paper Can rolls Circles Earth Our Houses configuration is expected to be liveable for the sweltering and sticky Queensland atmosphere, by giving highlights that will make the house cool in summer and warm in winter to live in. Principle Features of our House: Pool: Great for recreational exercises and for chilling off in summer, which can advance generally speaking prosperity. Nursery: Is ideal for any home that has a patio, intended for manageability. Occupants can develop their own trees and plants so oxygen can be delivered in the lawn, profiting your general wellbeing. By developing your own vegetables, you can decrease your carbon impression keeping away from cargo on these items. In the open air eating territory: Allows detached cooling all through the home by permitting the breeze to go into the house and makes a cool and happy with eating and engaging zone in summer. Underground Water Tanks: Provide water for flushing toilets, washing garments, pool, decrease water utilization, diminish water charges and can be utilized as dim water to keep up yards and nurseries. Protection: Insulation in the dividers and rooftop will keep the home cooler in the mid year and hotter in the winter. This will diminish vitality bills and the expenses of cooling and warming the home. Windows and entryways: Windows and entryways make uninvolved cooling through the home, it permits breeze to enter through the front entryway, and orientated windows permit daylight to pillar through impeccably in the late spring and winter months, and permits the breeze to course through the home of a one or multistorey home. The Measurements of the house are recorded underneath: Tallness: 550mm Length: 410mm Width: 360mm The advancement period of our venture will show the strategy we utilized for building the model house, wellbeing methodology we utilized for development and a photograph displaying the model house. The strategy we utilized for developing our model house are recorded beneath: Stage 1: We started the getting ready for the development of our proposed house structure. Stage 2: We at that point arranged our workstation and wore security attire and gear for example PPE glasses. Stage 3: We at that point assembled materials and started development. Stage 4: When the house development was finished, while adhering to wellbeing techniques we initiated house room temperature testing. Stage 5: We at that point estimated the room temperature for the non-vitality effective house for 1 hour while at the same time estimating room temperature for our vitality proficient house. Stage 6: Compare results from room temperature try. Heated glue Gun: When utilizing the craft glue, firearm reach and limit the separation with others as genuine consumes and rankles to the skin may apply. Outside taking trials: Precautions should be taken while testing outside. Wearing a cap while in the sun is the best strategy from being careful from UV beams. To limit to much introduction from daylight while you are not taking temperature perusing sit in the shade to forestall getting singed by the sun. Stanley blade: Stanley knifes can be amazingly perilous whenever utilized wrongly, they are just to be utilized to cut cardboard in equivalent parts for the dividers of your home. In the event that they are utilized mistakenly they will bring about another understudy being harmed. Scissors: Scissors can be risky if not utilized accurately. Whenever utilized erroneously they can bring about an understudy harming himself or another understudy. Splinters: While a few understudies are cutting up boards of wood and utilizing wood based supplies, this accompanies the issue of splinters. Be aware of sharp and wooden boards as they have the most noteworthy possibility of giving us splitters, to stay away from this make a point to sand them first. Taking care of your workspace: Make sure there is a sheltered enough separation among yourself and friends in your workspace. In the wake of working, tidy up any conceivably perilous and risky things from the beginning limit the danger of injury. Space: Space is a significant factor. On the off chance that you are developing your home in a confined space close to different understudies fabricating theirs then mishaps may occur. Ensure there is a sheltered enough separation among yourself and companions. Â Â These outcomes that were recorded from our 1 hour try was broke down and examined beneath. Â Â This table will look at and separate outcomes got from a trial examining the adjustment in temperature over a one hour time span. Time: Non-Sustainable Home: Feasible Home: 0 Minutes (Start) 33 degrees 29 degrees 5 Minutes 36 Degrees 30 Degrees 10 minutes 39 Degrees 34 Degrees 15 Minutes 31 Degrees 38 Degrees 20 Minutes 37 Degrees 39 Degrees 25 Minutes 35 Degrees 39 Degrees 30 minutes 39 Degrees 36 Degrees 35 Minutes 39 Degrees 36 Degrees 40 Minutes 40 Degrees 36 Degrees 45 Minutes 44 Degrees 37 Degrees 50 Minutes 45 Degrees 36 Degrees 55 Minutes 46 Degrees 35 Degrees an hour (Finish) 46 Degrees 35 Degrees The outcomes we got from our investigation displayed that our maintainable house was 10 degrees cooler than the non-reasonable house. There was a differentiation between our home we planned and the non-reasonable house model. There were abnormalities from the outcomes we recorded, as our supported home recorded temperatures more than 35 degrees at certain occasions, However the non-continued home recorded a hot high 40s-degree normal, Meaning our home progressively reasonable to the atmosphere. The outcomes were led on a day where the estimate was a 33-degree max, which means our outcome was significantly influenced. The situation of our home being on a hot show surface in direct daylight, thermodynamics may have cautioned the outcomes we got in light of the fact that sight-seeing is less thick than cold air and consequently pneumatic stress will apply an upward power, making our general house temperature hotter. Additionally, human mistake may have added to not accepting precise out comes, for example, delay with finishing development and probing an alternate and hotter day, likewise the postpone when recording minutes in 5-minute interim with the stopwatch and having estimation blunders may have come about for us to get defective information and broken ends. Vitality effectiveness factors in the home shift as indicated by geology, atmosphere, home plan and area. The plan for our own followed the aloof ideas, for example, inactive cooling and warming, which limit vitality requests, for example, sun powered direction, latticework for concealing, protection and finishing. To accomplish this, we included a nursery for finishing, and in the open air house structure for concealing and diversion, sun powered orientated windows and ways to permit breeze and natural air all through the house, a pool for entertainment exercises to improve generally speaking prosperity lastly protection in the dividers and rooftop to keep the home cooler in the mid year and hotter in the winter, since this will decrease vitality bulls and expenses of cooling and warming in the home. Subsequent to breaking down our outcomes inside and out, we can say that our home we planned contains a few zones of protection which is more reasonable and liveable than a non-practical home in the wake of investigating our outcomes in detail. If we somehow managed to lead a comparable analysis once more, we would change the manner in which we worked the development for our home. Our objective in the event that we organize another examination like this is limit human blunder. To accomplish this, we

Citizen Kane Essay

An amazingly brilliant, yet certainly not a film I could ever observe again in light of the fact that I wouldn’t have the option to deal with it a subsequent time, Citizen Kane’s very title has become an artful culmination. â€Å"The Citizen Kane of its type is about as incredible of commendation as any film would plan to accomplish. Resident Kane’s remarkable status in the realm of American film is held in its place in Hollywood history. At the stature of the Hollywood studio framework, when studio supervisors controlled each part of filmmaking from creation to display, this film was made by a bunch of splendid craftsmen who were offered opportunity to do anything they desired. The models in the film of why Citizen Kane is ostensibly the best film ever: Introduction to Xanadu. Kane’s Death. News on the March. Prologue to Susan Alexander. Kane’s youth, Kane Buys his First Newspaper. Prologue to Mr. Bernstein. Visual imagery: Mr. Bernstein’s picture reflected in table. Visual imagery: Mr. Bernstein remains underneath painting of Kane. The Early Days, the Happy Days. Assertion of Principles Scene. Kane Celebrates Birth of His Newspaper Empire. Kane Returns from Paris with Wedding Engagement. Leland Recalls the Breakdown of Kane’s Marriage to Emily Norton. Kane Meets Susan Alexander. Gettys Springs His Trap. Kane Marries Susan Alexander; Her Opening Night at The Missing Review. Susan Alexander at the El Rancho. Susan Alexander Rehearses for Opening Night. Susan Alexander’s Opening Night at the New Opera House. Contention over the Bad Reviews. Susan Alexander on Tour. After Susan’s Suicide Attempt. Life is Boring in Xanadu. Susan Leaves Kane. As Susan stands up to Kane. As Kane begs her. As Susan acknowledges Kane just doesn’t get it. Kane, watching Susan strolls down long passageways and out of his life. Susan leaving camera. Visual imagery, Susan leaving his life, and Kane’s Rampage After Susan Leaves a Symbolic activity, Kane gets the glass ball. Emblematic exchange, Kane says â€Å"Rosebud† representation: Kane’s appearance in the mirrors Answer to the Riddle of â€Å"Rosebud.† Visual imagery, fence, No Trespassing Sign, K sign in fence in frontal area, Xanadu approaching out of sight Outwardly, Welles and unbelievable cinematographer Gregg Toland manufactured an emotional style joining such procedures as outrageous profound center, shifted camera anglesâ including low edges uncovering set roofs, and flighty utilization of lighting and profound shadows foreseeing the film noir style. Independently, the vast majority of these strategies had been spearheaded in different movies, yet Citizen Kane stunningly united them with remarkable insight and development. Narratively, Welles and veteran essayist Herman J. Mankiewicz mutually created a narrating visit de power consolidating non-straight account, composite narrating from different perspectives (a method that would later be permanently connected with Kurosawa’s Rashomon), fluctuating story structures including the acclaimed opening newsreel portion just as meetings and flashbacks, and a sensational range of decades with characters maturing from youthful adulthood (or even adolescence) to mature age. Their characters are perplexing and vague, and their discourse snaps with mind and understanding. Specifically, the film handles the puzzle of man from almost every possible point aside from religion †love, bliss, cash, power, sex, marriage, separate, governmental issues, the media, big name, despair, passing †in a sweepingly goal-oriented examination that asks once again the 2000-year-old inquiry, â€Å"What does it benefit a man to pick up the entire world and lose his soul?† What’s more, Kane achieves this not as a tenuous craftsmanship film for the aggressive few, however as a well known story for the general population, a conundrum picture with the most popular turn finishing off with Hollywood history. This completion, obviously, is the clarification of Charles Foster Kane’s passing on word, â€Å"Rosebud.† The bend behind the curve is that while the last shot satisfyingly settle the inquiry with which the image started, the entire idea that that the response to that question would by one way or another give the way to Kane’s life was just a journalistic vanity. The film responds to the inquiry, however ceases from offering any last clarification or judgment of its unpredictable hero, recommending that a man’s life is in excess of an enigma to be clarified or settled. That’s not to state that Rosebud isn’t noteworthy. It is. It implies guiltlessness lost, lament, the disappointment of the American long for clothes to-richesâ success. It additionally speaks to what Kane lost at an early age when he was taken from his mom and father and raised by a heartless watchman. Denied of adoration, troubled by a lot of cash and force, Kane grows up with a covetous want to be cherished in spite of being unequipped for affection himself, just as a pomposity and feeling of qualification to getting his direction. An incredible deplorability exemplifies the clouded side of the quest for satisfaction, with bombed relationships, broken companionships, ran political goals, avaricious greed, disconnection, and sadness. Contention encompassing the arrival of the film has become a suffering piece of its legend. The character of Charles Foster Kane was broadly perceived at any rate to some extent as a fictionalized form of paper head honcho William Randolph Hearst, and Hearst angrily gave a valiant effort to stifle the image and have it devastated. While taking a shot at Citizen Kane, Welles kidded that â€Å"If they at any point let me do a subsequent picture, I’m lucky.† He was just half right. He was fortunate enough to make numerous extra pictures, some of them artful culminations in their own right. That too amazing degree of control and enchantment was a once in a blue moon opportunity and Welles benefited as much as possible from it. This is Citizen Kane.

Is Democracy Overrated - 550 Words

Is Democracy Overrated? (Essay Sample) Content: IS DEMOCRACY OVERRATED? Name:Institution affiliation:Is democracy overrated? Democracy refers to the type of government system where the supreme power is vested in the common population. The people or their elected leaders, through a transparent election directly exercise the power of the government (Sà ¼tà §Ãƒ ¼, 2011). In many countries all over the world, democracy has continued to form prevalence over other types of government such as dictatorship, communism, and monarchy. However, various limitations that have affected the social and economic aspects of the people show that democracy is overrated. Although democracy is associated with enhanced creativity emanating from the participation and intense engagement of many people in different projects, the system has a flaw of encouraging short-term goals among leaders. As much as democratization is considered a pathway to promote state-building, which greatly relies on long term goals, the process can result to trad e-offs that might cause short-comings in the actualization of long-term goals. The complex political process associated with democracy plays a critical role in creating tensions in the implementation of long-term goals. Such situations cause the adoption of policies that promote short-term goals, which are easily achievable in the presence of policies tension (Singh, 2001). Democracy should be an element that promotes state building through reconciling states development policies and political process. This can remove political bureaucratic redundancy that is a major obstacle in the implementation of long-term goals in many countries.Since time immemorial, democracy and escalating political corruption has shown a positive linear relationship, which in turn corrodes the democratic process, norms, and mechanisms. What defines an action or practice as corrupt is the corrosion of some features that allows democracy to thrive. Evidently, political corruption is real during elections, esp ecially in Africa, a continent characterized by a big gap between the poor and the rich. Leaders tend to abuse their democratic rights by buying out voters. During election campaigns, potential leaders, who are mostly the rich people, stash out large amount of money to fuel bribery and coercion. Ultimately, voters abuse their democratic rights by accepting briberies and voting for leaders who offer money and promise favors after being elected to political offices. This result to incompetent and unfit leaders assuming the same offices (Schopf, 2011).The need to recover money used by these leaders will form the basis of corruption through illegal dealing such as drug trafficking and misuse of public funds. Notably, democracy is associated with unlimited freedom to the people, where legalization of socially unacceptable behaviors such as homosexuality, marijuana, and concealed carry of guns is evident. This is because the belief that national laws are based on values upheld by citizens of a country has been eroded (Saunders, 2012). As a result, people are openly breaking the set rules and regulation, leading to increased crime. The carrying of guns, which is good illustration of unlimited freedom to exercise democratic r...

Literature Review on the Battle of Kursk - 1490 Words

The Battle of Kursk was one of the most important clashes in the Second World War partly because of the impressive amount of armored units taking part in the conflict and partly because it represented a turning point for the Soviets, as their victory played an essential role in the war. M. K. Barbiers book KURSK: THE GREATEST TANK BATTLE, 1943 provides a complex account of the conflict and emphasizes its strategic significance for the Germans, as this was their last great offensive. The fact that the book supports information with rare photographs further contributes to the general feeling it puts across and makes it possible for readers to acknowledge the intensity of this particular battle. Barbier documents each stage of the battle and provides maps to display how each of the two belligerent camps moved as the conflict progressed. Robin Cross The Battle of Kursk: Operation Citadel 1943 does a similarly good job at describing the most important moments of the battle. The book emphasizes how Hitler thought that stronger forces would be needed upon hearing that Kurt Zeitzler was confident that ten to twelve panzer divisions, with supporting infantry, would be sufficient for the operation, code-named Zitadelle. Cross book is also significant because it presents readers with the events leading up to the battle and the starting moments of the conflict. This enables people to get a better understanding of why and how each event in the battle took place. Even withShow MoreRelatedOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesINTRODUCTION whole, treats the two wars and their prehistory and aftermaths as genuinely global phenomena, not as conflicts among the great powers of Europe, the United States, and Japan, which has been the obsessive focus of most of the vast literature on this subject that defined much of twentieth-century history. As Carl Guarneri argues cogently in his contribution to the collection, which provides the fullest bibliographic references, the emergence of the United States first as one of the

Interference with Property - 1490 Words

Interference with Property What is Interference with Property: Intentional interference with property is the section under intentional tort law that protects a citizen from having their land trespassed on, chattels stolen or obtained by people that should not have their items.It is also the act that protects your rights as a Canadian citizen to privacy and protection of property. Types of Interference with Property: There are four main sections under which intentional interference with property can be broken into; Trespass to Land, Nuisance, Trespass, to Chattels, and Conversion, each put in place to preserve the rights each citizen has when it comes to privacy. Trespass to Land - deals with the most well known type of†¦show more content†¦-Half way through the payment schedule, you sell the big screen because it s the only thing you have that can get you a chunk of money -What kind of interference with property is here? (Trespass to Land, Nuisance, Chattels, Conversion) Case Study Rogers v. Board of Road Com’rs for Kent County BRIEF SUMMARY ON THE CASE: The Board of Road Commissioners for Kent County (Board) (defendant) had a license agreement to place a snow fence on land owned by Rogers’(plaintiff) husband. The Board set up the snow fence pursuant to the license agreement. Under the license agreement, the fence, including the anchor posts, would be removed by the Board at the end of the winter season. At the end of one winter season the Board removed the snow fence but did not remove a steel anchor post that protruded six to eight inches above the ground. The grass in the area where the post was located grew to a height that completely hid the post from one’s view. On one particular day in July, while Rogers’ husband was mowing an area where the snow fence had been located, the mowing bar on her husband’s tractor struck the steel post that was hidden from view. As a result of the impact, Rogers’ husband was thrown from the seat of the tractor. Rogers’ husband died from the accident. Rogers sued the Board forShow MoreRelatedUse Of The Neighbouring Sports Turf Voiced By Jim, Tom And Marie Essay1535 Words   |  7 Pagesnuisance, remedies are seeking damages to compensate for physical damages (Marie only) and personal discomfort, and seeking a prohibitory injunction to reduce noise and light to a reasonable level. 1. Trespass to land is an â€Å"unjustified, direct interference† with land possessed by another, which is actionable without proof of actual damage . ‘Land’ refers the surface of the earth, the subsoil and airspace as far as is necessary for ordinary use , and anything fixed to the surface . An intentionalRead MoreWithout light, life on Earth would not exist. It is the most essential component in all of the600 Words   |  3 Pagesdiscussing the topic of Thomas Youngs Double-Slit Experiment. Take note of the diagrams as presented in paragraphs one and three. The main ideas of this topic are the properties of light, the interference of light, and the details that make up Youngs experiment. To start off, light has many complex properties. Light has the property of waves in the form of electromagnetic radiation. This electromagnetic radiation has a spectrum that can be separated into an extensive amount of bands based on theRead MoreThe Argument Of Money Is A Lack Of Political Freedom888 Words   |  4 PagesCohen’s main argument is that a lack of money is a lack of political freedom. Freedom is a lack of interference. Money provides freedom in the form of taking out interference with access to different services (Cohen, 182). Money is not a way to avoid interference but a way to bypass it. The conclusion to his argument is that money is an implied freedom. Money has no purpose but to overcome interference. 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When an electron transitions from a higher orbital, where it is in its excited state, back down to aRead MoreComputational Model of Neural Networks on Layer IV or Primary Visual Cortex755 Words   |  3 PagesMap Results section Orientation selectivity is one of the properties of neuron in primary visual cortex that a neuron response maximally when particular orientation of stimulus is given. The orientation map is a map showing the orientation preferences of cortical neurons in primary visual cortex. This research provides evidences for support of the theory posit that the orientation selectivity map is a product of a Moirà © interference pattern that originates in retinal ganglion cells. This paperRead MoreTortious Liability955 Words   |  4 Pagescertain rights such as property rights or rights of privacy. The concept encompasses only those civil wrongs independent of contracts.† The eminent American legal mind, Professor Prosser states, â€Å"broadly speaking, a tort is a civil wrong, other than a breach of contract, for which the court will provide a remedy in the form of an action for damages.† Examples of tort include: a) assault and battery b) false imprisonment c) trespass d) negligence e) interference with contract Read MoreIdentifying Human Hair and Animal Fair by Laser Diffraction1213 Words   |  5 Pageswidth and the shape and texture of its surface, however electron microscopes are expensive and time consuming to operate (Sessions et al., 2009). Lasers are much cheaper and can be used to easily measure the width of narrow objects by measuring the interference pattern created when laser light is diffracted around the object. As a result, laser diffraction may be a more preferable method for identifying hairs based on their width. This experiment hopes to show that laser diffraction is an accurate enough

Ancient Roman Entertainment free essay sample

Theatre The theatre is one of Ancient Rome form of entertainment. The characters in Roman plays were all played by male slaves. Men played the parts of the women. The typical characters that were played in Ancient Rome theatres included the rich man, the king, the soldier, the slave, the young man and the young woman. If necessary, an actor would play two or more roles in a single performance. The mask was the most notable part of an actors performance. More masks and wigs were used for comedies that tragedies. Gray wigs represented old men, black for young men and ed for slaves. Young men wore brightly colored clothing, while old men wore white so that the audience can easily identify the characters. Pantomimes were popular during the first century BC. Pantomimes involved miming roles to accompaniments of singers, dancers and musicians. Women wore allowed in mimes and pantomimes, but eventually degenerated into vulgar and disgusting tastelessness. We will write a custom essay sample on Ancient Roman Entertainment or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In Ancient Rome, plays were usually presented on contemporary wooden stages at the time of the games. In 55 BC, the first permanent Roman theatre was built. It had a seating apacity of twenty seven thousand. In Greek theatres there was a circular space located in front of the stage called the orchestra, since Roman plays usually lacked a true chorus, the area in front of the stage simply became a semicircular area. Admission to the Roman plays were free for citizens. Originally, women were only admitted to view tragedies, but, later, no such restrictions were imposed. Public Baths The baths were a place of leisure in the time of the Roman Empire. People from nearly every class could attend the public baths. Diocletian and Caracalla were the wo most well preserved baths of Ancient Rome. Diocletians baths cover thirty acres and the Caracalla baths cover twenty seven acres. Now, the ruins of the Diocletians baths include two Roman churches, St. Mary of the Angels and the oratory of St. Bernard. Towards the center of the Roman baths could be found the tapidarium a warm bathroom. The tapidarium was surrounded on one side by the frigidarium, a large cold pool about two hundred feet by one hundred feet, and on the other side could be found the calidarium, a very hot steamy room heated by subterranean team. Hot air and steam baths had been known to the Greeks as early as the fifth century BC. The original thermae was small. By the first century BC, hypocaust heating allowed for the creation of hot/cold rooms and plunge baths. The baths were not only for leisure, but also, for social gathering. Portico shops sheltered gardens and promenades, gymnasium, rooms for massage, libraries and museums could also be found in the public baths. To compliment these scholarly havens were marble sculptures and other artistic masterpieces. Amphitheater

Othello - Analysis Of Iago Essays (515 words) - Othello, Fiction

Othello - Analysis of Iago Othello - Analysis of Iago Shakespeare's Iago is one of Shakespeare's most complex villains. At first glance Iago's character seems to be pure evil. However, such a villain would distract from the impact of the play and would be trite. Shakespeare to add depth to his villain makes him amoral, as opposed to the typical immoral villain. Iago's entire scheme begins when the "ignorant, ill-suited" Cassio is given the position he desired. Iago is consumed with envy and plots to steal the position he feels he most justly deserves. Iago deceives, steals, and kills to gain that position. However, it is not that Iago pushes aside his conscience to commit these acts, but that he lacks a conscience to begin with. Iago's amorality can be seen throughout the play and is demonstrated by his actions. For someone to constantly lie and deceive one's wife and friends, one must be extremely evil or, in the case of Iago, amoral. In every scene in which Iago speaks one can point out his deceptive manner. Iago tricks Othello into beleiving that his own wife is having an affair, without any concrete proof. Othello is so caught up in Iago's lies that he refuses to believe Desdemona when she denies the whole thing. Much credit must be given to Iago's diabolical prowess which enables him to bend and twist the supple minds of his friends and spouse. In today's society Iago would be called a psychopath without a conscience not the devil incarnate. Iago also manages to steal from his own friend without the slightest feeling of guilt. He embezzles the money that Roderigo gives him to win over Desdemona. When Roderigo discovers that Iago has been hoarding his money he screams at Iago and threatens him. However, when Iago tells him some fanciful plot in order to capture Desdemona's heart Roderigo forgets Iago's theft and agrees to kill Cassio. Iago's keen intellect is what intrigues the reader most. His ability to say the right things at the right time is what makes him such a successful villain. However, someone with a conscience would never be able to keep up such a ploy and deceive everyone around him. This is why it is necessary to say that Iago is amoral, because if you don't his character becomes fictional and hard to believe. At the climactic ending of the play, Iago's plot is given away to Othello by his own wife, Emilia. Iago sees his wife as an obstacle and a nuisance so he kills her. He kills her not as much out of anger but for pragmatic reasons. Emilia is a stumbling block in front of his path. She serves no purpose to him anymore and she can now only hurt his chances of keeping the position he has been given by Othello. Iago's merciless taking of Emilia's and Roderigo's lives is another proof of his amorality. If one looks in modern day cinema, one will see the trite villain, evil to the core. Shakespeare took his villains to a higher level. He did not make them transparent like the villains of modern cinema. He gave his villains depth and spirit. Iago is a perfect example of "Shakespeare's villain." His amorality and cynicism give, what would be a very dull character, life.

buy custom Date Humor and Leadership Style essay

buy custom Date Humor and Leadership Style essay The augmentation of constructive psychology throughout the latest years signifies a move from the precedent unconstructive sequence to the present optimistic psychological and fitness-focused aspects. Observations on humor are amongst them. Humor is a multi-faceted and compound notion that is generally functional in psychology, learning and collective communication. It is deemed to hold the similar notion as positive individual attributes, for instance, hopefulness, faith and bravery. It adds the enjoyment to our everyday life, aids people to cope with tension and supports individual charm and interpersonal connection. Nonetheless, research on humor is rarely implemented at the workplace and problems as mental strength of employees, office acquaintance or organizational behavior, leadership pattern, organizational culture, performance and novelty are infrequently looked at. In truth, the impact of humor on private psychological condition can be broadened to the group. Avolio et al. ( 219) showed that humor was an essential feature and furthermore, the capability of leaders. Leaders continually convey this characteristic to alter their assistants and adherents. The humorous and stirring headship, escapes from doctrinal and reinforces followers with more freedom, via appealing and inspirational interactive conduct for the definitive aim of attaining organizational targets and improving leadership efficiency. Dwight D. Eisenhower stated that A sense of humor is part of the art of leadership, of getting along with people, of getting things done. Workplace communication is basically related to verbal and written contact, and for those concerned in leadership ranks, verbal communication evidently prevails. In line with one study, leaders regularly spend between 60%-90% of their time in head to head communication, and between 30%-60% of their time conversing with their followers in the workplace. Clouse and Spurgeon (1-24) stated that humor is a priceless way of attaining transactional plus relational leadership purposes, and others identify the importance of humor with reference to analytical, administrative, and intervening variances. Furthermore, humor encourages a vigorous exchange of thoughts, however might as well operates to 'bring people back into line', and to assist in controlling subsidiaries' behavior. Rus (922) mentioned that at the heart of the leaders of law implementation groups achievement, is the capacity to inspire workers to perform. Whilst some may visualize such impact in terms of power, vigor, supremacy, and control, it can also be slight. Certainly, any chief can employ their executive status inside of a division or a group to acquire deed from the staff. But, the most flourishing leaders employ their personal traits to encourage their employees. Rus (922) argues leadership as an Art, noting that successful leaders are those who take advantage of their individual vigor to persuade others and accomplish results, time after time, even when they progress from one task into a different one. Staff is attentive and reacts to them. As numerous workers endeavor superiority at work by character, most outshine, since the companys leaders generate an encouraging ambience, which involves eminent interactions with friends, subsidiaries, and superiors. For leaders at workplace, humorous headship might not be the chief decisive factor for business achievement; however it is exceedingly imperative for structuring an efficient and effective team that possesses superior excellence. Conger considered that recurrent application of humor by leaders at workplace was a successful approach to motivate or re-establish confidence. Davis and Kleiner (1) also suggested that leaders could attain three considerable upshots via the usage of humor, namely; 1) decreased stress at work; 2) assisted subordinates in recognizing leaders managing patterns through the contact amongst them, and; 3) enthused subordinates or adherents. Likewise, Craumer (3) also deemed that leaders could aid subordinates in adapting to one another and alleviate the pressure and stress among them, through the implementation of humor. This reveals the vital connection task that humor deploys in workplace communications. In addition to determining the discomfiture ensuing from d iverse standpoints, it helps preserve high-quality interpersonal association among team members and heighten the partner caring and respect. For leaders themselves, humor, moreover, signifies a positive outlook to help them cope with hardships effectively without being overpowered. Avolio et al. (219) carried out an experiential scrutiny on the link between leadership and humor. Surveys were handed out to 120 leaders and 320 subordinates within a big Canadian monetary organization. The intent of the research was to weigh the impact of humor against leadership performance in distinct leadership methods, to embrace transformational, conditional reward, and unautocratic leadership approaches. They evaluated the rate of the leaders employment of humor, and connected their result with members success. Outcomes point to distinctions in a variety of leadership styles with regard to the leaders exploitation of humor and subordinates efficiency. A quantitative breakdown demonstrates that transactional leadership is absolutely associated with the utilization of humor and to subordinates presentation. Contingent incentive leadership explains a constructive relationship, just for the use of humor, except that it is unconstructively linked to subordinates performance. Liber al leadership, conversely, is negatively correlated with humor and followers performance simultaneously. These results are sustained by Decker and Rotondo (451) who examined 359 questionnaires from graduates of a management academy. Similar to Avolio et al., they too, discovered that humor improves leadership effectiveness. Specifically, it initiated augmented views of complimentary assignments and relational activities, and was professed as comprising an encouraging consequence on the leaders efficacy. Harry Truman once stated that Anyone who has had the job Ive had and didnt have a sense of humor wouldnt still be here. To the degree that a group lauds humor, its successful exploitation can contribute to an individuals standing or reputation. Not all worklaces support humor, yet, and at times the workplace comic is perceived as troublesome, and turns out to be the attention of displeasure. Alternatively, humor can provide the individual with a practical self-protection or managing plan. Humor can as well be a way of self-discovery, mainly of hard or awkward information. To reach out a thriving usage of managerial humor Dewitte and Verguts (17) suggested three categories of jokes. Set one jokes is unsuccessful in drawing out a funny reaction (e.g. laughter) founded on an unexciting premise. For instance, a little child saying a joke to a grown-up would be improbable to bring out a laugh. Set two jokes are effective because they implement the true equilibrium between originality and tolerable content which bring out laughter or new forms of humorous reaction, whether cognitive or expressive. Set three jokes dont succeed in generating humorous reaction, for they are excessively ridiculous or unpleasant. A person might try to use effective organizational humor related to purpose and opinion. Successful employment of humor in groups is related not only to category number two humor tries, founded upon comprehending the individual, but as well upon endeavors being taken as humorous by all the groups constituents. At its utmost, collective humor leads to a feeling of pleasure that derives not from producing it, but from distributing it. Carrica stated that lots of academics have acknowledged the significant forthcoming function that humor takes within groups. For instance, Carrica noted that humor is an instrument by which social players try to attain purposeful finishes. Foot proposed that, functionally, there are little new practical social talents than humor. If Foot is accurate, then it is necessary for leaders and managers to acquire how to integrate humor into their selection of communication aptitudes. Bob Ross supported the idea that A leader without a sense of humor is apt to be like the grass mower at the cemetery he has lots of people under him, but nobody is paying him any attention. Every management communication action represents both a duty and a social facet. The useful viewpoint of leadership communication deals with task and social conducts that assist organizations to operate more successfully and proficiently. This practical perception has also been implemented to the usage of humor as a model of communication. Though some have proposed that humorousness is merely a decisive feature of leaders, others have accentuated the useful role of humor. For instance, Benne and Sheats (30) depicted joking as one of the attitudes pinpointing to the corresponding role of group maintenance. Benne and Sheats (30) noted the significance of humor as a leadership function to facilitate the reduction of tensions among group associates. Evidently, humor is an indispensable factor to leaders communication preference. As a way into social power, humor may operate as strength to convey agreement or censure of acts, chiefly disapproval of group norms infringements. By entertainingly providing an instance of unsuitable behavior, humor can be exploited not only to direct behavior, but as well to highlight group values and ethics. It is discovered that humor brought about a social weight on employees to obey the rules inspired employees who were not abiding by work codes. Plenty of research has inspected the role of humor in increasing consistency among group affiliates. As such, Benne and Sheats (30) proposed that humor might develop self-confidence by reducing social space of group members, by preventing clash, and by supplying familiar basis. They also discovered that persons resort to humor as an implication of support or fondness, and as means to offer new members, a feeling of comfort in the working environment. Pogrebin and Poole (183) offered three roles of humor that function to put up and uphold group unity. Foremost, humor permits group associates to allocate general experiences and to explore the attitudes, views, and feelings of other group members in a non-intimidating style. Humor helps interpret a persons worry into a group matter, hence strengthening group cohesion. Next, humor encourages social harmony through the joint joking which permits group members to understand that they share a joint perception. This "laughter of inclusion," in addition to humor intended for people outside the set, helps identify social limitations. Third, groups employ humor as a way of communication plan in handling a variety of forces outside their direct power. For instance, "gallows humor" permits group members to laugh at their troubles, representing society and empowering group solidity. Group members exploit humor to convey understanding with each other's affections and to tolerate emotional isolation from a theme by controlling unusual circumstances. Romero and Cruthirds (58) study suggested that there are diverse humor patterns to involve affiliative humor, self-enhancing humor, hostile humor, mild aggressive humor, and self-defeating humor. Those who apply affiliative humor jokes with others draw them with styles of humor that stresses on improving social communications. Affiliative humor resembles social oil that eases up interpersonal relations and produces an optimistic environment. People with self-enhancing humor have a funny perception of life and are not excessively concerned by its foreseeable misfortunes. Individuals, who use aggressive humor, regularly try to control others by indirect warnings of mockery. Aggressive humor can be employed to oppress, demean and induce other kinds of belittling. Romero and Cruthirds (58) consider that easygoing aggressive humor can have constructive roles. For instance, their study has determined that viewing other members being laughed at is associated with compliant attitudes, which is positive in unified teams. It moreover tolerates expression of difference and trouble, without unconstructive distress, while the meaning is sent in a teasing manner. People, who develop self-defeating humor, mock themselves in an effort to entertain and they look for recognition of others. People, who utilize a reasonable quantity of this humor pattern in organizations frequently aspire to diminish their standing level, and try to be more sociable. In proportion to Brook, it is evident that humor decreases dysfunctional strain. When creating a jokee on a nerve-racking condition, one grows a feeling of supremacy and authority over it. Humor drives people to sense that they are brave; without panic, they undergo a bigger sense of power, which is contrary to tense emotions. This state has been demonstrated countless times in movies, in which personalities encounter a lethal conclusion, and fool about their definite downfall (e.g., James Bond). The humor models recognized previously by Romero and Cruthirds (58) as affilative humor and self-enhancing humor were suggested to be the best approaches to cut strain in groups and organizations based on their study. As they stated, affiliative humor may be executed within a collection to alleviate worry ensuing from demanding occasions, since it crafts a shared environment, in order that anxiety-causing variables are joint, and are handled by all affiliates, so that it brings about a we are in this together state of mind, which is positive when reacting to tension. Self-enhancing humor can be predominantly advantageous in cutting down stress, revealing that persons with an elevated sense of humor were more prone to restructure stressful conditions, so that they were viewed as controllable. George Bernard Shaw stated that If you are going to tell people the truth, youd better make them laugh. Otherwise theyll kill you. For the last several years, people have deemed humor for a dependable individual attribute (Martin et al 75). In fact, the meaning of humor in western civilization was unconstructive at first, and slowly turned constructive. At one time, it was perceived that humor was a multi-faceted model that embraced lampoons, jokes, wits and irony, amongst additional unconstructive attitudes. Conversely, more than a few research also discovered an incoherent affiliation between humor and psychological wellbeing or reaction to strain. For instance, Crawford scrutinized and revealed that people with a significant sense of humor, were not constantly with less bodily infections and symptoms. Brooks discovered that individuals with a high sense of humor were not regularly providing more affirmative feelings. Neither were they more hopeful, self-accommodating and more in authority of the outside world. Martin et al (75) found that individuals with a high sense of humor do not always exhibit higher int erpersonal closeness and an adequate interpersonal bond. Consequently, amongst the distinct humor approaches, there may be some that are harmful for physical and psychological health, and can yet be unsafe and damaging to oneself and others. Affiliative humor Affiliative humor is a constructive humor model in support of others. This is a kind of non-aggressive humor. Affiliative humor highlights social relations. It represents a lubricant that can simply facilitate interpersonal weirdness and edginess and encourageeagerness into social events. Likewise, this model ofhumor comprises a positive association with self-worth, optimism, and a positive mood; it is unconstructively connected with tenseness and anxiety. Self-enhancing humor Self-enhancing humor is a constructive humor approach in support of oneself. These people possess a humorous outlook toward their existence. Whenever they cope with strain or complexity, they motivate themselves by humor and preserve their affirmative consciousness. It is an emotion-adaptable or receptive defense method. Self-enhancing humor is frequently in a constructive association with self-worth, hopefulness and positive temper; it is an unenthusiastic association with anxiety and apprehension (Martin et al 75). This type of humor deals with strengthening ones self-assurance. Aggressive humor It is an unconstructive humor model, and it is harmful to others. This is detrimental humor founded on the dominance conjecture that the spokesman is superior to the others. It combines humor with mockery, irony and jeer, and it is disparaging to the addressees. According to Martin et al.s observation, aggressive humor is absolutely affiliated with unfriendliness, aggression, and tenseness, however still to be investigated whether it has a downbeat outcome on the physical and mental health of people (Martin et al 75). Implementing aggressive humor in an organization is intended to maneuver or regulate team associates via one's feeling of dominance. Self-defeating humor It is an unconstructive humor approach, and is detrimental to oneself. Martin et al. (75) proposed that this was harmful humor as well. The speaker seems to be over disparaging to himself/herself in order to make an impact on others. This is an unselfish defense method that is likely to conceal negative emotions ahead of conflicts, throughout humor. This kind of humor is frequently optimistically interrelated with melancholy and anxiety, and negatively interrelated with self-esteem, contentment and social support fulfillment (Martin et al 75). Activating self-defeating humor in an organization is intended to follow everyone, and get consent from others. Crawford considered that humor is a significant facet of manger-follower relations. Directors that employ humor aptly are deemed by their workers as being more relationship-focused. Results in the academic literature are balanced by a surplus of articles in the accepted journalism, which praise the premises of humor for strengthening affiliations, and are also confirmed by numerous examples of eccentric, yet efficient leaders who have tied together the influence of humor, to assemble bonds with their workers. In accordance with Holmes (119), leaders employ a number of discursive agendas in order to incorporate lots of diverse facets of successful contact in their daily relations. In several workplaces, humor is one of these stratagems: humor is an apparent way of attaining relational action and generates a priceless route of engaging various features of successful control. Humor at some degree, is aimed to entertain at all times, and however also achieves a broad spectrum of further objectives. Research performed by Hay, evaluated discussions among friends and defined three inclusive-functions of humor: (1) to accentuate strength differences; (2) to create or preserve unity within the organization; (3) to supply self-preservation, namely, humor employed in self-protection. Buy custom Date Humor and Leadership Style essay

A Message Without Words Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

A Message Without Words - Essay Example ere is one that allows ladies and gents to adorn stylish, comfortable and practical clothing while still embracing their femininity and masculinity respectively. Weinberg (2009) insists that, before embarking on a marketing campaign, there is a need to clarify goals and the overall aim of the campaign. One has to define what they aim to achieve from the campaign. The team at Benetton aims at expanding the market share for the cashmere design presented in the above picture. A picture speaks a thousand words. The picture above, which is the center of this campaign, speaks to both ladies and gents alike. It does not segregate the genders and, in this way, it widens the market share extensively. That, on the other hand, is another objective of the campaign; to show the public that we can offer a design suiting both genders. The target group is age oriented. According to Jones (2005), age is one of the significant factors when categorizing target markets. The team at Benetton aims at capturing the individuals of the 20-35 years of age. This is the most active and fashion conscious group (Jones, 2005). The age bracket targeted above captures the college student and the young employees. College life accompanies a certain lifestyle and trendy fashion styles. The picture ad portrays both male and female genders posing in it. The team at Benetton concur with Jones (2005), who admits that, contrary to an earlier time when chain store displayed menswear in separate shops from women’s wear, today they chain shops display them together. The Picture ad silently states this ideal. Therefore, having covered the gender divide in the campaign, the team at Benetton can focus on ways of convincing the target group. The target group forms the majority of the growing population in any societal setup. This group will most likely be on a credit access of some kind. It may be for educational purposes or otherwise. In whichever case, the credit availability will also greatly influence

School Lunch Lady Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

School Lunch Lady - Essay Example Hence, the staff in those schools was extremely strict, especially the lunch lady, so that the students learn to adjust to the harder way of life. She used to make the same porridge everyday, and gave only fixed amounts of food to everyone, to keep the children away from any kind of luxury. Although the image of that lunch lady is still in the minds of children today, not one school has a lunch lady of that caliber. Today, children are not scared into doing something, but are politely made to understand between right and wrong, and their consequences. For instance, if children need to be stopped from eating a lot of candies, they cannot be forced or scared into doing it, but be explained the harmful effects of doing what they are doing. I believe that this image of the lunch lady should have been gone with the extinction of old boarding schools, but media was always there to save it from dying, and has still kept it alive. Fairy tales and other children's books have played a major role in keeping the lunch lady alive. The stereotype can be seen in stories like Hansel & Gretel, Cinderella, Sleeping Beauty, and others.

The Impact of the Institute of Medicine Report Essay Example for Free

The Impact of the Institute of Medicine Report Essay The impact of The Institute of Medicine Report (IOM) 2010 has a major influence on nursing education. The first issue addressed in the report is an increased emphasis on public and community nursing. In the past, only nurses holding a bachelors degree were experienced and trained in community and public health, and the IOM wants to change that. One particular area of change is that now associate degree nurses are being trained in these areas in order be able to transition into these fields more smoothly and directly from nursing school. Another area that is addressed in this report is to increase the number of BSN degree nurses to 80% of all nurses by the year 2020. There are many reasons that this would benefit nurses and patients alike. Overall, nurses with higher degrees have a stronger foundation in their knowledge. Also, studies have also shown that they adapt to changes in the ever changing healthcare system, much better. A number of hospitals, especially teaching hospitals, prefer BSN to ADN. Teaching hospitals have a goal of at least 90% of their nursing staff to be bachelor degree nurses. Thus, more education will only help a nurse to obtain and retain employment and give him/her the tools needed to more capably care for their patients. The American Association of Nurses stated, The need to increase the number of BSN prepared nurses will deliver safer and more effective care. As the baby-boomers get older and sicker, the care that nurses offer is becoming more complex, thus requiring nurses to have excellent critical thinking skills, in hospitals and clinics alike. However, in order for more nurses to become bachelorette licensed, a number of things must take place. First, nurses need to step up to the plate and take the initiative to go back to school and continue their education. Secondly, employers need to make continuing education 2 ore appealing to theiremployees, possibly by offering higher tuition reimbursement, incentives for obtaining a BSN, and onsite classes. Therefore, in my opinion, nurses that have a higher education, will also have a broader range of skills, such as; more comprehensive critical thinking skills, leadership skills, management experience, and research tools. Ultimately, it is up to each and every nurse, to make the choice to apply themselves, and go after a higher education. The next area of great concern is the nurses role as a leader. Improved and concise leadership will be a necessity, in order to fulfill the growing number and needs of patients, and the ever changing healthcare system. According to the IOM report, Strong leadership is required, to realize the vision of a transformed health care system. This can be achieved by a close evaluation of the system as a whole, and looking at nursing specifically. Also, ongoing reform of the healthcare and nursing system will need to be a priority. Advocacy from nurses and organizations alike is a key factor in making this work. Lastly, implementing the above area is critical to making the entire program work as a whole. Another area that holds priority in nurses as leaders is research. Research is a very important part of leadership, in relation to research that is applied to practice and policies. This can be done with reform and experience, and needs to be developed and shaped by nurses with years of experience, and by nurses that belong to committees and advocacy groups that have strong beliefs in changing nursing and the healthcare system for the better. One other area that needs to be addressed in order for nurses to become strong leaders is competencies. First, the entire multi-disciplinary team of nurses, 3 doctors, pharmacy, physical therapy, etc. , need to work together as a true team and collaborate for the patients’ best interest, best outcome, and overall health. This can be achieved, according to the American association of colleges of nursing, by having a generalized set, as well as a distinct set, of competencies. Having generalized competencies will be helpful in creating a strong foundation for all nurses to have the same basic skills. The distinct set of competencies will be more geared towards specific areas of nursing in order for nurses to be experts in their specific field of nursing. In conclusion, leadership in nursing can be achieved by evaluating the nursing practice as a whole and by making changes when necessary. Also, nurses continuing to be on the frontline of research is key to maintaining leadership. Lastly, by making sure that nurses collaborate well within the multidisciplinary team, in order to provide the best patient care possible. The last area that needs to be addressed is the portion of the IOM report that discusses the impact of nursing practice, particularly primary care. The American Association of Colleges of Nurses defines standards of practice as an outline to better guide nurses skills, judgment, knowledge, and attitudes, in order for nurses to practice cautiously and safely. (AACN 2010). Therefore we as nurses need to maintain the high level of practice that we took an oath to, upon graduating nursing school. One of the first areas that nurses can be invaluable in the community and in primary care is to be an advocate for education related to diseases and the disease process. By educating our patients upon discharge, at a level that they fully understand, will help the patient to be healthier, feel better, live longer, and prevent hospital re-admission. By educating our patients about chronic diseases such as congestive heart failure and diabetes, our patients will benefit overall and the hospital will also be able to decrease the number of re-admissions. I believe that each and every patient that becomes admitted to a hospital, nursing home, rehab, or any other facility, deserves individualized care, that is specific to them and them alone, not the cookie-cutter approach so many of us nurses have become accustomed to in the years we have worked in these settings. I will work to change and improve my nursing practice to meet the IOM’s requirements by refining my patient education. I plan to accomplish this by meeting with my manager to implement a new and improved discharge education plan that will be specific to each patients needs and at a level that my patients can comprehend. In conclusion, I believe that The Institute of Medicine Report (IOM) 2010 is a well written and well thought out, report that needs to be achieved in order for our patients to receive the best possible nursing care available to them, and for nurses to be able to practice to their full potential. The biggest barrier in the above mentioned areas of change; education, leadership, and nursing practice, is government regulation. Education requirements vary from state to state and even from one nursing school to another. This needs to be rectified, and a general set of standards needs to be put into place for all states, in order for nurses graduating from nursing schools and going out into the workforce, to achieve these goals smoothly. Also, a general set of competencies needs to be agreed upon so that ADN nurses can seamlessly transition to a BSN degree. As for leadership, the same challenge faces each state as to what the definition of a nursing leader is. A clear and concise plan needs to be in place to promote nurses into leadership positions. Lastly, the federal trade commission, the board of nursing, congress, the AACN, and other advocates and committees, need to determine national standards for nursing education, nursing leadership and nursing scope of practice, and clear up the state by state regulatory differences.

Comparing O. Henrys A Municipal Report and Susan Glaspells A Jury of

Comparing O. Henry's A Municipal Report and Susan Glaspell's A Jury of Her Peers In ?A Municipal Report? by O. Henry and ?A Jury of Her Peers? by Susan Glaspell, the authors provide a disappearance of evidence about a retaliatory murder, but only one is true to human life and shows characteristics about human life while the other falsifies it. In this case ?A Municipal Report? is most definitely the one that fixes the story to merely entertain the reader, and ?A Jury of Her peers? lets go the true character of mankind. In ?A Municipal Report? O. Henry tells the story in a first person perspective through a man who thinks he is detached from the world. In O. Henry?s story we see that certain characters stand out among the rest by the details that he gives us. The author?s tone in, ?I stepped off the train at 8 P.M.,? is meant to appear nonchalant to give a feel that the narrator is merely an observer in the story. The characterization in the story is also unrealistically portrayed. Azalea Adair is a poor woman who, despite how needy she is, tells the narrator, ?You must have a cup of tea.? She is depicted as a good character without a single bad bone in her body. That would only be meant for the story since O. Henry could have set her up more realistically than a helpless princess needing to be rescued. Another character that defies human reality is Ceasar. He is shown to be a good character as well, giving Azalea his money and helping her out when she needs him. There is nothing bad about Ceasar th at would make the reader dislike him. He is the classic knight in shining armor that could only be set up in a fantasy world. Next is the evil man Caswell. The narrator, who says, ?I have seen few men whom I have so instantaneous... ...he people had practical characteristics that did not make the story any less realistic. The styles of ?A Municipal Report? and ?A Jury of Her Peers? differed greatly in the sense of realism. While O. Henry?s story obviously served the entertaining purpose with the unpractical sense of characters and development, Glaspell?s story had a meaningful interpretation of life with pragmatic characters that could reflect human life. Works Cited Glaspell, Susan. ?A Jury of Her Peers.? Literature: Structures, Sound, and Sense. Eds Laurence Perrine and Thomas R. Arp. San Diego: HBJ, 1991. 324-41 O. Henry. ?A Municipal Report.? Perrine and Arp 312-24. Perrine, Laurence. Analysis of ?A Jury of Her Peers?. Instructors Manual to accompany Literature: Structure, Sound, and Sense. San Diego: HBJ, 1991. 41-43 ---. Analysis of ?A Municipal Report.? Instructors Manual 40-41.

Political Parties in Nigeria Essay

Democracy no doubt is the world’s current new bride. To the extent that everyone – Politicians, Journalists, statesmen and even laymen – call themselves democrats while those who wish to defend a regime no matter its nature call it democracy (Williams 1995:65), one could aptly say the world is in the age of democracy. But as democracy is gaining currency the world over, it need be stated that the Institution of political party constitutes the lubricant of the current democratic wave. This is because, political parties serves as vehicle for expressing myriad of world views held by citizens as well as an instrument to garnering the informed and active participation of the citizens in the political process which constitutes the hallmark of any democratic practice. As noted by Hague and Harrop (1987:141-142), party competition is the hallmark of liberal democracy because it is the device which makes governments responsive to the electorates by providing voters with s ome choice while simultaneously restricting that choice to a few broad alternatives. In other words, the greater the number of parties and / or the latitude of freedom, the more democratic the political system is or becomes while the the more they are conscripted, the lesser the likelihood of a democratic political system. This view was also shared by Anifowoshe (2004: 59) when he noted that the condition of the political parties in a political system is the best possible evidence of the nature of any democratic regime. It must however be stated that while parties constitute the piston in the engine of democracy, the nature and activities of political parties themselves may constitute a stumbling block in the way of democratic growth and sustenance. This has been the paradox of party politics in Africa where the institution has remained largely underdeveloped. Instances abound where activities of parties have been a major factor in the decline of democratic politics or outright termination of democratic administrations and their subsequent replacement by military authoritarian regimes. In this context, the Nigerian state is a reference point. Nigeria became independent in 1960 after years of colonial rule. Independence ushered in a multi party democracy under a Westminster parliamentary model. However, due to a number of circumstances including intra and inter party bickering and, political excesses of parties and their leaders among others, the first democratic republic was truncated in January 1966 following a bloody coup detat championed by the five Majors. The abrupt termination of the first republic also ushered in a thirteen-year long military rule that lasted till October 1, 1979. Nigeria had another taste of multiparty democracy between October 1979 and 31st December 1983. However, like most of the parties of this period themselves, the problems of the first republic reincarnated to mare the democratic processes, culminating in the military coup of December 31st 1983 and the beginning of a second phase of military rule in the country. Indeed, the second phase of military rule in Nigeria which lasted between December 1983 and May 29, 1999 was the most dramatic and traumatic in the history of the country. It was a period mostly characterized by series of coups and counter coups, political maneuverings and above all, endless transition to civil rule programmes or what Diamond et al (1997) has aptly dubbed ‘Transition without End’. But while the political imbroglio of that period cannot be blamed out-rightly on the excesses of political parties and their leaders, the need to avoid such was always advanced as a defensive mechanism for continuous tinkering with the then transition process. For instance, reasons for dissolution of the 13 political associations that first prelude the third republic and their consequent replacement by government created SDP and NRC and, annulment of the June 12, 1993 presidential election that eventually calumniated in the abortion of the third republic were carefully crafted under the need to avoid repeat of mistakes of the past republics. Detailed work on this has been done by scholars and need not be recounted here (See, Diamond et al 1997). However, what must be stressed here is that, Nigeria’s current democratic experience was the end product of a long and tortuous journey through the woods of military autocracy. Although the decade of the 90’s generally was characterized by external pressures for democratization around the world, the resilience and perceptions (rightly or wrongly) by Nigerians that democracy holds prospect for a better life was also a major factor that sustained the struggle. Also, perhaps, in acknowledgment of the sanctity of the party institution to democratic sustenance, the country has continued to operate a â€Å"growing† multiparty democracy since 1999. Thus, from three parties in 1999, it currently has over thirty political parties with prospects of more to be registered. Against this long background, this paper seeks to examine the role of parties in sustaining Nigeria’s democracy. Further to this are: To what extent do Nigerian political parties conform to their expected role in the political system or in sustaining democracy? What are the encumbrances (if any) on their performance in Nigeria? What is / are to be done to place Nigerian political parties on the part of vibrancy vis-à  -vis democratic sustenance? Unraveling these problematic calls for rigorous inquiry. But to start with, situating the role of parties in a universal context is essential. Political Parties and Democracy: Theoretical Framework Political party is one of the genuses of intermediary groups in a political system. Others include interest groups and pressure groups. Thus, the relationship between viable political party and democratic governance is no doubt axiomatic. Political parties are the lubricant of democracy and without which, democracy based on the western model cannot function (Adele 2001:35). This is essentially because it provides a credible means of harnessing the variety of public opinions essential in sustaining a democratic society. While democracy rests on the informed and active participation of the people, political party is a viable tool in this regard. This perspective is shared by political scientists. As Anifowoshe (2004:59) remarked: Democracy exists where the principal leaders of a political system are selected by competitive elections in which the bulk of the population have the opportunity to participate. As a matter of fact, the condition of the parties, in a political system, is the b est possible evidence of the nature of any democratic regime. Implicit in the above statement is that a party’s level of institutionalization, cohesion and social base, determines the extent of its viability and the extent to which it could be said to be performing its functions in a democracy. In other words, viable political parties contribute to democratic growth much as unviable ones may result in democratic regression. Although there are myriad of definitions on what constitutes a political party, yet they all revolve around electioneering and the control of government. For instance, political parties has been conceived as an instrument for contesting elections for the purpose of selecting candidates and party(ies) to exercise political power (Yaqub 2002:122). This definition is in consonance with that which sees political party as an organization, which is principally, absolutely and actively involved, in the electoral process, in a democracy, with the major intent of winning political power and controlling the government (Onuoha 2 003:137). The import of these definitions is that the major goal of political party is to capture and control governmental powers. This it does through participation in electoral process in which it fields candidates to contest for various posts. Yet, it must be stated that while the major goal of a political party is to capture and maintain control over personnel and policies of government, such at times may have to be done in coalition with other party(ies). This is especially the case where electoral victory is not based on ‘first past the post’ system or where a single party could not win the minimum electoral seats necessary for it to constitute a government. However, beyond fielding candidates for elections and controlling governmental apparatuses, political parties also perform other functions which on the one hand set them aside from other organizations such as interest groups and more importantly on the other hand, makes them sine qua non for democratic development. These include; the task of political recruitment and training, education, socialization, breeding consensus, providing alternative world views and political communication among others (see Okoosi-simbine 2004:85-86; Yaqub 2002:112; Aina 2002:10-12, Onuoha 2003:137). It is the extent to which parties are able to discharge these functions that determine the extent of democratic growth in the country. Important in carrying out the above functions is that part ies especially in culturally variegated societies such as Nigeria must eschew those intervening variables that are likely to mar programmes and policies of the party such as salience of ethnic, religious or other sectional interests. Where this is not avoided, the tendency is that a party will find it considerably difficult in harnessing or mobilizing mass support for democratic growth. The emphasis here is that parties are formed not only to promote policies but also to secure social interests. It therefore follows that parties must have broad social bases in order to be able to aggregate interests rather than articulation of specific sectional ones. Also central to democratic growth through the party system is party institutionalization. That is, the process by which parties become established and acquires value and enduring stability (Huttington, 1965:394). Although the extent of party institutionalization varies with party systems the world over, it is usually measured based on some factors such as party age, count of splits and mergers, electoral stability, legislative stability and leadership change (Janda, 1993:167). Of equal importance is party coherence, which has been defined as the degree of congruence in the attitudes and behaviour of party members’ (Janda 1980:118; 1993:173). There is no gainsaying the fact that the degree of coherence among party members bears direct relevance to party strength and stability. This is because a strong and coherent party in terms of membership and structure is usually stronger and coordinated both in articulating view and garnering electoral support than are fragmented one. It is also the factor of coherence that enable parties to effectively discharge the function of National integration which they are expected to perform especially in plural societies. It must be stressed that, while parties in the advanced countries of Europe and America, are observed to have attained the status described above, those in the developing countries tend to be a little far from it. In other words, political parties in the developing countries cannot be ranked on equal scale with those of the advanced countries in terms of viability of the institution. Hence, it could be reasoned that the difference between the two worlds accounts for the different levels of democratic growth between them (e.g. Nigeria and USA). Although Nigeria has returned to democratic practice since 1999, yet there is a growing concern over the sustenance of its democracy. These concerns obviously owe their origin to the nature of political parties and party politics or activities in the country. Issues surrounding this dilemma are examined next but before this, description of the character and general tendencies of current political parties is essential. Roles and Functions of Political Parties From various literature on political party, it is evident that democracy, especially the liberal majoritarian version would be practically impossible without the institution of political party. This no doubt is anchored on the expected roles of political parties in deepening the democratic process. One major role expected of any political party is the task of political recruitment and education. The centrality of this function lie is the fact that it is directly connected with fulfillment of the common aim of all parties. That is, the aim of fielding candidates for election and capturing or exercising political power either singly or in cooperation with other parties (see, Yaqub 2002:164; Ball 1988:73). In other words, in the process of trying to capture political power, political parties serves as a major instrument/platform through which candidates for public offices are recruited at all levels. This is the case in both socialist as well as competitive liberal democracies. According to Ball (198:77), in such political systems where parties are absent (such as in zero party situation) or weak, political elites are usually recruited from traditional elites or through religious and military organizations. However, such sources of recruitment usually have implications for stability of the regime because they lack the more popular base of political parties. In other words, the institution of political party provides an avenue for recruiting politically ambitious persons into the political elite class. In this, we can also accommodate parties’ role as a credible means of political succession. This is because parties would have narrowed down the number of competitors for a particular office to what it considered the best choice at the material time. This process help reduce pressures on the political system as well as streamline citizens choice. In addition, in the process of campaigns for elections, parties inform and educate the public on important s tate policies and actions much as they do while in power. Even for parties out of power, they provide a constant source of critique of government policies which attimes help to change, modify or improve the quality of policies and programmes. Related to the task of recruitment and education is the role of parties as socializing agents. Generally speaking, most conceptions of socialization agreed that it is a process by which individuals incorporate into their own attitudinal and behavioural patterns, the way of their respective social groups and society (Babawale, 1999:218). If this is true, it follows that in the course of preparing candidates for elections, campaigns and other political activities, the individual within the society is acquiring some attitudinal or behavioural patterns necessary to make a politically vibrant individual. In addition, knowledge about political institutions and processes are acquired and internalized by the individual. Perhaps, this informed why political socialization have been conceived as all formal and informal explicitly or nominal political learning at every stage of the life circle that affects political behaviour, such as learning of politically relevant social attitudes and the acq uisition of politically relevant personality characteristics (Greenstein, quoted in Babawale 1999:219). Another major role of political parties in any political system is in the area of serving as link between rulers and the ruled through what is known as political communication. That is, parties provide a means of expression and information flow, both upward and downward, in any political system. Although, the flow of information is crucial to the survival of any political system, the direction of information flow however varies. For instance, in a liberalized multiparty system, there is tendency for information flow to be tilted more in favour of upward flow. This would allow the ruling party to feel the pulse of the populace as well as respond positively to policy demands. But even for parties out of power, it has a tendency to reinforce collective consciousness of party members and strengthen the level of attachment to the party. On the other hand, where there is a single party, the tendency is that information flow will be more from the top to the bottom. For instance, Hague and Harrop (1987: 140) had noted that in Stalin’s Russia, ‘the democratic’ expression of opinion from the grassroots of the Communist Party was negligible compared with the â€Å"centralist† flow of directive from the top. This notwithstanding, what is important is that, irrespective of the strength or direction of information flow, political parties have the onerous role of serving as a two-way communication process between the government and the people. The formulation and implementation of collective goals is yet another major function of parties. This is because in the process of seeking to capture power, they formulate programmes and policies either through conventions, meetings and even manifestoes which they hope to implement while in office. Some of these issues eventually constitute the collective goals of the society. Related to this is the mobilization role of parties. Indeed, parties are known to have been in the vanguard of mobilizing the citizens. This they do through mass rallies and other forms of display of unity that emphasizes identification between the individual and the party. Hague and Harrop (1987:140) noted that, parties have been the prime movers in the revolutionary upheaval of the modern age. They alluded that the enormous transformations of Russia and Chinese societies in the last century were led by vanguard communist parties committed to radical social changes. So also were the nationalist parties of the third world who played critical role in the attainment of independence and the subsequent attempt to weld new nations out of traditional societies (Hague and Harrop 1987:140-141). In the process of developing collective goals, parties also serve as important agents of articulating and aggregating the myriad of groups and individual interests in the society. Although this is not an exclusive function of political parties as it is also performed by interest groups, but parties are able to do this on a wider and / or national scale. Indeed, all parties have social base that cuts across ethnic, religious, occupational and class divides. It thus serves as a platform through which the diverse interest base are articulated and aggregated to form coherent whole. The underlying assumption here is that parties are able to synthesize and reconcile the multitude of competing interests into a broad national value. It must however be stated that this function of political parties, though important, need not be stressed too far. This is because, most often, parties mainly respond to interests and demands that are consistent with their ideology or in line with controlling int erests in the party. In this context, parties are important agencies in determining which interests are represented in politics and which ones are left out. From discussions so far, it is apparent that the relationship between political parties and democratic sustenance is axiomatic. Indeed, the various roles performed by political parties in the political system are expected to strengthen the democratic processes. This demand also implies that political parties and political leaders must in themselves be democratic. What this translates to is that the extent to which individuals within the party and the party organization itself assimilate democratic tenets to a large extent affects the extent to which they are able to discharge the above roles as well as the quality of democratic growth in the political system. In other words, having democrats is precondition for democracy to take root. How these intricacies of party politics and democratic sustenance have played themselves out in Nigeria will be our next focus after a preview of political parties in the country’s current fourth republic. Parties in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic Political parties in Nigeria’s fourth republic emerged against the background of a military managed transition prograamme which began in 1998 and reached its climax on May 29, 1999 when a new civilian administration was ushered in (see Momoh and Thoeveni 2001). Before this experience, Nigeria has had previous democratic republics between 1st October 1960 when it gained political independence from Britain and January 1966 when it was rudely terminated in a military coup; another one was between October 1, 1979 and December 31, 1983 while a third one was not allowed to take root in the early 1990s because it was eventually truncated by its own architect. What is remarkable about all the republics is that, with the exception of the aborted third republic which had only two parties dejure, all others were characterized by multiparty system. Extensive work on previous republics have been done by Coleman (1971); Joseph 1991; Diamond et al 1997; Ujo 2000 and Yaqub 2002). To begin with, parties in Nigeria’s current fourth republic have been characterized by what could be described as a seesaw numerical transition. This was because, at inception of political activities in 1998, several political associations were registered (though provisionally) as political parties but was later prone down to three before the 1999 elections and by 2003, several others came back on the stage. This numerical transition deserves extensive comment. Upon commencement of political activities in 1998, close to fifty political associations sprang up but at the close of nominations, only twenty-four of them had applied for registration with INEC. After thorough scrutiny, only nine of these parties were formally registered (provisional) by INEC according to its guidelines. These are Alliance for Democracy (AD), All Peoples Party (ANPP), Democratic Alliance Movement (DAM), Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), Peoples Redemption Party (PRP), United Democratic Party (UDP), United Peoples Party (UPP) and Movement for Democracy and Justice (MDJ). However, the future and continuous existence of these parties was tied to passing the acid test. To continue to exist and function as a political party, a parting was expected to score at least, a minimum of five (initially ten) percent of the total votes in at least 24 states of the federation during the December 1998 local governments elections. Thus, of the nine parties, only the APP and PDP clearly met the criteria having scored at least five percent in over 24 states of the federation each. The AD was third with 5 percent of votes in 14 states of the federation. However, in addition to the APP and PDP, the AD was also registered partly to assuage the south westerners who were still aggrieved by the June 12, 1993 election imbroglio and most importantly, because of provisions of the electoral laws that the third best party would also be registered in the event of only two parties meeting the recruitments. Consequently, based on the modified criterion, the AD, APP and PDP were registered to contest the 1999 general elections. Following increasing pressures for registration of more parties, three other associations, All Progressives Grand Alliance (APGA), National Democratic Party (NDP) and United Nigeria Peoples’ Party (UNPP), were registered in June 2002 out of over twenty that applied for registration. The registration of these three parties however heightened agitations by those yet to be registered until they were finally registered later in the year. Those factors that made their registration inevitable included subtle blackmail by other associations seeking registration, fragility and growing intra party deputes among existing parties and above all, the resort to litigation by those not registered among others (see, Anifowoshe 2004: 63) Added to this was increasing factionalisation of existing parties. Indeed, the ruling by the Federal Appeal Court in Abuja, FCT, which favoured the registration of more parties, was a major and perhaps most significant factor that prompted registration of more parties by INEC to the extent that about thirty political parties freely contested the 2003 general elections. It must be stated that, although thirty political parties contested the 2003 general elections, the trio of PDP, ANPP and AD have remained dominant since 1999. While the PPD is currently controlling 27 states (previously 28 before the court order that awarded victory of Anambra state governorship election to the APGA candidate earlier this year), the ANPP has seven states and AD, one state. They all however, have their men in the national parliament, though with varying strength. Also, there has been a growing rate of factionalization, crises of succession and internal bickering within the parties. This is with the consequence that more parties and political association have continued to emerge from them to the extent that Nigeria is currently having about 37 political parties with prospects of more to come. The new bride of parties include the ACD, MRDD, Action Alliance †¦ For instance, the rate of factionalization within the ruling PDP have gone to an extent that several factions have emerged as new parties on their own. This was the case with the MRDD spearheaded by a former national chairman and other prominent members of the party. The same account could be read for the recently formed ACD which from all indications is spearheade by imcubent Vice President Atiku Abubakar. Indeed, the PDP is not alone in the troubled waters of dissent. Even notable members of the AD and ANPP are now either full members of one of the newly registered parties or fraternizing with the intention of becoming one. This was the case with the incumbent protem National Publicity Secretary of ACD, Lai Mohammed, who was hitherto a strong member of the AD. Indeed, in the build up to 2007 general elections, there seem to be general disarray among political parties in the country. While new parties have emerged after 2003 general elections, there is nothing to suggest that more will not spring up before the next 2007 elections. But if the deepening or defense of democracy is a prime factor which politicians have always adduced for the alignment and realignment of forces leading to formation of new parties, to what extent have Nigerian political parties with its increasing numbers satisfied this aspiration? Or better still to what extent have they fulfilled the expected roles of parties in a democracy necessary for deepening the process? This is our prime concern in the next section. Nigerian Parties and Democratic Consolidation Perhaps a good way to access the impact of parties on democratic sustenance is to align our thought in this direction with the expected roles of parties in a democracy. Indeed, Nigerian parties by whatever angle they are looked at are political parties properly so called. At least, to the extent that the common aim, as parties elsewhere, is to capture political power and control machineries of government. By implication therefore, they are practically veritable instruments in the recruitment of political leaders and political elites. In fact, viewed against previous experiences, one would observe an increasing sensitization and political education of Nigerians. However, one must be cautious in stressing this argument too far giving the contradictions inherent in the ways and practices of the parties. This is because, at the facial level, parties may have been recruiting candidates for various elective posts, but beneath we may ask: what is the quality of candidates being recreated? Are the parties democratic in their recruitment process? Obviously, answers to these questions are negative. To anchor this further, we may begin on the premise that to have (or sustain) democracy, first, there must be democrats either as individuals or party organizations. It is obvious that at inception of the current democratic administration in 1999,and with exception of the PDP then which had a consensus candidate in Chief Olusegun Obasonjo, all other two parties were not particularly democratic in selecting their presidential aspirants. For instance, the decision of the A D under the influence of Afenifere, a pan Yoruba socio-cultural organization to select chief Olu Falae as the party’s presidential flagbearer at a meeting held in Ibadan by party elders without allowing proper democratic contest between him and Chief Bola Ige cannot be described as democratic. In fact, the undemocratic nature of what is now the ‘De Rovans Hotel’ episode has been adjudged as a major factor in the crises that has been rocking the party since 1999 (see National Interest June 18 2006:18). So also was the case with the APP between Dr. Olushol Saraki and †¦. The later was eventually selected in a rather spurious manner. Expectedly this action stired controversy within the parties leading to factionalization in the case of the AD and protest votes against the party by Dr Saraki and his supporters in the APP in the 1999 presidential elections. In addition, many of the three parties’ aspirants for other posts were either hand picked or selected in a surreptitious arrangement. Indeed preparations for the 2003 elections witnessed an almost complete disregard of democratic tenets in the process of recruiting candidates for elective offices. Although many of the parties attempted to pick their aspirants, especially presidential nominees, through national conventions, but unfolding events and protests by other aspirants after the conventions smacks of fluidity of the process. The implications of all the above is the increasing factionalization of the parties and rising level of intra party crises. Worrisome as these situations appear, there is nothing yet to suggest advances in democratic direction by the parties even for the 2007 elections. The recent convention of the PDP in which it was resolved (or maneuvered) against the wishes of some other members that its candidates for elections will be by affirmation is a pointer in this direction. Also is the case of the NDP which has already adopted a candidate, Rtd. General Babangida, as its presidential flag bearer for the 2007 election without holding a convention. What we can derive from the above analysis are two fold. First is that a faulty premise cannot produce a sound conclusion. A party whose internal machinery is undemocratic cannot nurture democracy in a larger societal context. Second is that the candidates so recruited have not gone through any democratic training within the party nor tested democratically to ascertain their level of subscription to democratic tenets. In this case, such candidates while in office will likely be intolerant to opposition and above all, perpetuated through undemocratic tendencies. Current unfolding occurrences in the country manifesting in succession crises, third term agenda etc. tend to confirm all the above assertions. In other words, the bottom line remains that, neither Nigerian political parties nor politicians could be regarded as democrats thus cannot effectively and sufficiently contribute to maintaining the system. In terms of political communication and serving as link between the government and the people, Nigerian parties grossly parade a deficit balance in this regard. This is because none of the parties has a functional formal communication channel. The reality is that most of the parties’ structures especially at the grassroots are only vibrant at the approach of elections. After this, they fade away while the party continue to exist only at National and state headquarters. Indeed, the critical ingredients and means of political communication necessary for a vibrant democracy are conspicuously absent in the parties. These include avenues for expression of opinions by citizens, free information flow (upward or downward) among others. These elements help strengthen attachment and loyalty to the party thereby holding prospect for increased political participation. However, Nigerian parties are not forthcoming in this regard. What is apparent is that relations within the parties are mo re of client-patronage relation. Party leaders and elected officers most often become alienated from other party members and even the electorates immediately after election. For the parties in power, the only relation that there from exist between party elites and other members usually is occasional distribution of patronage in order to preserve members support and loyalty while those out of power fizzled away only to re emerge at the approach of another election. For this reasons, harnessing citizens’ initiative or sustaining a vibrant political participation of members becomes difficult with the result of docility in party activities. Indeed, communication is the life wire of any organization the lack of which may result in the organizations eventual death. The party organization and indeed the political system is no exemption in this regard. Perhaps, we can make bold to say that the near zero communication level of Nigerian political parties is a major factor in their inability to institutionalize or funct ion effectively as lubricant of the democratic project. As already noted in this text, parties also play mobilization roles as well as articulate and aggregate the myriad of opinions held by individual and groups within the society. This no doubt facilitates development of collective goals. A careful observation of the Nigerian experience however reveal parties as playing contradictory roles to the above. First, mobilization of citizens has often been limited to periods of electoral campaigns. For Nigerian parties and politicians, election periods are periods to galvanize the people and exhume powerful oratory remarks. The average politician is always willing to visit the nooks and crannies to mobilize and solicit support for the party and candidates. But while this is part of the mobilization function of parties, it need not be confirmed solely to an election period routine. Rather, it is a process that must continue in order to bring out the best from the citizens in terms of input into policies and programmes of the government. But given the psyche of the Nigerian politician and their end-means orientation of politics which is to acquire political power in order to secure economic resources, citizen contribution / input into policies and programmes is of inconsequential effect. This crave for economic security at whatever cost by the political elites could therefore be adduced as a contributing factor to continued non alignment of policies with realities confronting the Nigerian electorates. Another dimension of the faulty mobilization function of parties in Nigeria is that even where they, as elsewhere, have wider social base of support, political maneuverings often create a situation whereby parties resort to politics of ethnic and/or religious mobilization. Indeed, mobilization politics along the lines of ethnic, religious or some other forms of cleavages have been a major character of party politics since independence. For instance most parties of the first republic used divisive mobilization politics to garner electoral support. So also were parties of the second republic. With the exception of AD which is rooted in the south west and maintains affinity with Afenifere, a socio cultural organization in the region, all other parties of the current era could not be said to have their support base restricted to a particular region. However, in the process of electioneering campaigns, many members wittingly or unwittingly often whip ethno-religious sentiments as strategies to mobilize support. Consequently in the prelude to the 2003 general elections, the mood of many Nigerians was that, Religion will play a prominent role in their choice of leaders†¦. Muslim- Christian rivalry was so intense that none of the 30 political parties in the country has managed to develop a firmly national support base. Muslims consider Obasanjo’s ruling peoples Democratic Party (PDP) as a Christian party. The all Nigerian peoples party (ANPP) of his nearest rival, Muhammad Buhari is considered by Christians to be a Muslim party (Marahatha Christian Journal, 2003). The emphasis therefore is that, where mobilization is carried on, on a faulty premise, it becomes extremely difficult to articulate and aggregate programmes and policies that serves the national interest. In this context, programmes and policies often articulated are those that are in consistent with that of the dominant interests within the party, be it socio, cultural or economic. In terms of political socialization, it may be argued that there is a tendency for negative socialization among Nigerian political parties. Socialization, conceived in terms of the process by which the individuals incorporate the ways of their respective social groups and society into their individual patterns and behaviour, is expected to be facilitated by political parties through campaigns, rallies and other political activities. In Nigeria, however, this has a negative content arising from series of violence and atmosphere of insecurity that often mare electoral processes in Nigeria. Nigerian parties and politician alike have a penchant for recruiting and making use of political thugs mostly recruited among motor garage boys, unemployed Youths and even Students at moments of campaigns and elections. Such behaviours and orientations which are antithetical to civic culture obviously are imbibed by younger generations. The consequence is that this erodes democratic senses of bargaining and compromise and instead creates the impression that force and crude militancy are the best ways to live and achieve political goals. The negative impacts of the socialization process is already being exhibited at other levels of politics below the state such unionism, especially student unionism. Indeed, student unionism at the tertiary level is expected to evince civic and enlightened qualities by virtue of the place of tertiary institutions in the country. However, a common observable trend in most tertiary institutions in Nigeria is that campus politics has often time been characterized by intolerance, maneuverings, money politics and a host of other negative traits exhibited by Nigerian political parties to the extent that institutions authorities may at times impose sanctions or outright ban on campus political activities. Situations like this no doubt have implications for their future political engagements and by extension, democratic growth in Nigeria. Our endeavour so for has been to trace whether there is an alignment between the expected roles and functions of political parties in sustaining democratic process and the activities of political parties in Nigeria. For one, while the role of parties in democratic sustenance is in controvertible, the Nigerian political parties have not been seen playing these roles. Why is this so is our focus next. Observed Weaknesses of parties in Nigeria From discussions so far, it can be gleaned that the indispensability of political parties to democratic sustenance is not in doubt. What is perhaps worrisome is the ability of Nigerian political parties to function effectively as catalyst for democratic growth. Gleaned from a number of observable trends, some factors serve to explain this unfortunate mess. First we may note ideological emptiness of the parties. Conceived as a set of coherent ideas which guide and tailor behaviour, ideology is expected to fire and sustain inspirations of party members. According to Scruton (quoted in Okoosi-Simbine, 2005:24), parties ideology are moral systems that enshrine the sanctity of contract and promise between them and the electorate because they constitute the political doctrine from which a programme of political action emanates and upon which basis citizens choose how they will like to be ruled. Essentially therefore, parties as organizations with diverse social base must be bounded by such set of common beliefs and ideas in order to help propel a vibrant democratic society. Unfortunately, Nigerian parties and politicians are merely playing survival game. Prime to them from observable trend is the desire to capture and maintain political power irrespective of what this takes. Consequently, this drive to capture power by all means possible tends to erode the performance of other functions necessary for democratic growth. The lack of ideology also serves as conduit for series of political vagrancies that characterized the political terrain. As observed by Aina (2002:19), Nigerian poiticians behave like political bats, changing affiliation in response to perceived fortunes or electoral advantage. Akin to the issue of ideology is what we may refer to as poorly digested manifesto of the parties. The manifesto is basis upon which contract between the rulers and citizens are sealed because it is the representation and/or expression of the political party’s direction, purpose and how it hopes to achieve them while in government (Onuoha 2003:141). It is the party’s statement of intention about how it hopes to achieve good governance. It is therefore the basis upon which performance of an incumbent government can be assessed and balanced against the need for change. Unfortunately, manifestoes of Nigerian political parties have proved to be manifestations of emptiness, similar in content and providing no choice for the citizens. The only difference between them as observed by Okoosi-Simbine (2005:22) is the emphasis they give to the programmes articulated or in a few cases, the strategies for carrying out the objectives. In other words, their manifestoes are more a replica of the other. Again, this close similarity in manifestoes can be hinged on their inability to develop a coherent ideology. As onu0oha (2003:145) rightly observed, any meaningful and functional manifesto must spring from a profound party ideology. Thus, a manifesto without a party ideology is like a body without a soul. In this context, rather than lubri cate democracy, parties constitute more of a burden on democratic practice. Prevalence of primordial sentiment may equaled be adduced as responsible for the inability of Nigerian parties to respond positively to the challenges of democratic sustenance. Indeed, the ability of a party to effectively perform its role especially in multi cultural settings is usually circumscribed by the socio-economic structure of the society. Therefore, since parties are institutions competing for spheres of influence in the socio-economic and political configuration of the society, there is every tendency that there activities will be likely be intertwined with prevalent socio-political sentiments of the society (Suleiman and Muhammad 2006). This is suggestive of current Nigerian parties. Indeed, post independent Nigeria has witnessed party’s base being deeply rooted in ethno-regional and religious sentiments to the extent that the major parties of the first republic (AG, NPC and NCNC) and their second republic successors (especially NPN, NPP and UPN) are often regarded as ethnic pressure groups. While parties of the current fourth republic may not be so deeply rooted in a particular region, nonetheless, the continuous use, overtly or covertly , of ethnic and religious sentiments in party politics reinforces social divisions among the populace which in turn weakens party structure and organization. Needless to stress that, a weak party in terms of internal structure cannot function optimally in deepening the democratic process. We can also speak of poor financial standing of the parties which made them susceptible to hijack by money barons who eventually use them to achieve personal benefits. Politics generally is an expensive activity and the role of money in contemporary Nigerian politics is indeed overwhelming. Although the government, through INEC, is currently financing the parties, but considering the spending pattern of the parties, government finance is generally considered insufficient. Consequently, additional funds are sourced through party financiers that include influential business men, party members in government and so on. For instance, the Plateau state governor, Joshua Dariye, sometime ago claimed he gave the PDP part of the 1.6 billion naira ecological fund he was accused of mismanaging. Similarly, only recently the ANPP caretaker committee chairman and gover nor of Bornu state directed all the seven governors on the platform of the party to contribute 20 million Naira each to the party’s purse within two weeks while all presidential aspirants and senators were to contribute 10 million Naira each towards the administration of the party (The Punch Editorial, †¦June, 2006:16). The implication of this is that Nigerian parties will likely for long be hijacked by money barons who will eventually constitute godfathers within the parties. Second is that credible aspirants who cannot afford to pay the huge sums would have to forget or submerge it while thirdly, internal party democracy becomes jeopardized. The resulting effect of all these is that parties becomes constrained as popular organizations capable of being the vanguard of democratic growth. Rather, they become characterized by frequent conflict and internal party squabbles. Also as a fall out of the above circumstances, programmes and policies that are often articulated and implemented reflect more of the interests of the so-called godfathers rather than that of the formal party organization. Thus, as the International IDEA (2006:8) have noted, given this context, Nigerian party life is characterized by a very low level of debate on policy options. Another observed weakness of Nigerian political partie s is the absence of political education. It is a common fact that Nigerian political parties have not been carrying out programmes aimed at enlightening the populace and even party members. This is because the party organization has been confined to mere instrument of contesting elections. Thus after elections, most of the parties become docile both in terms of recruiting new members and organizing activities to enlighten citizens about the political process. According to the country report on Nigeria by the international IDEA (2006:8), all the parties surveyed do agree that their members are active only during elections. The import of this is that once elections are over, only very few things link the party with its members thus, the expected role of political communication and education wanes out. We may also note the long years of military rule as another factor for the nonperformance of Nigerian political parties. Indeed, Nigeria’s long reign of military rule from 1966 to 1999, except for the brief period of 1979 to 1983, have affected the psyche of the average Nigerian politician. Military rule as it were is undemocratic. But its long reign in Nigeria with all its undemocratic tendencies have walked its way into the subliminal consciousness of most Nigerian. Thus, even though the military is out of power and democracy in place, the legacy of authoritarian tendencies still permeates the orientations and behaviours of the political class. The implications of this are that Nigeria currently has a short supply of tested democrats while democratic institutions remain large underdeveloped. In other words, while the success of any democratic experiment is predicated on the availability of individuals who are democrats in themselves, Nigeria’s long years of military tutelage has done no less than wipe out the last vestiges of democratic qualities among Nigerian politicians. Conclusion So far in this work we have tried to examine the link between political parties and democratic sustenance in Nigeria. It is observed that the institution of political party is indispensable if democracy is to be strengthened. This is by virtue of the various functions they perform which transcend the mere activity of fielding candidates for elections. However, the Nigerian situation is observed to be a deviation from the norm. if anything, Nigerian parties have not only failed in discharging these roles, but are equally working in the direction of democratic regression. In the main, the poor financial base of these parties, lacks of institutionalization, empty ideological content among others are part of their major constraints. Against this background, it is suggested that the government should improve on its funding of these parties in order to avoid their hijack by selfish money barons. Equally, the INEC should put in place mechanisms that would ensure these parties are internally democratic. Internal democracy of the parties no doubt will magnify into useful premise for democracy to thrive in the larger Nigerian society. Above all, there must be the political will by politicians themselves to allow democratic tenets to take root in the country. The above, it is believe are good recipe for democratic sustenance in Nigeria. 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